History of Computers in Nuclear Medicine
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Contents |
[edit] 1960's
1960
THE USE OF THE COUNTING RATE PROFILE IN RADIOISOTOPE SCANNING TECHNIQUES. This manuscript discusses pre-computer generation of counting profiles using a printer attached to the scanner and recording to film. Macintyre WJ, Gomez Crespo G, Christie JH. J Nucl Med. 1960 Oct;1:262-72. Tags: radioisotopes, counting profiles http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez/13764864
1961
SUPERIMPOSED OPTICAL AND GAMMA- RAY-SCANNER IMAGES. Discusses a procedure that automatically superimposes an optical photograph of the patient on the gamma-ray image in thyroid scanning. A pre- computer technique for gamma image localization. Anger HO, Tisljar-Lentulis GM. J Nucl Med. 1961 Apr;2:99-101. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez/13683572
1963
RADIOISOTOPE SCANNING IN MEDICAL DIAGNOSIS. An early review of the clinical applications of nuclear medicine. Tags: clinical nuclear medicine, radioisotopes. Kriss JP. Annu Rev Med. 1963;14:381-406. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez/14035828
1964
AN OUTLINE OF THE USE OF RADIOISOTOPE TECHNIQUES IN MEDICAL DIAGNOSIS. An early review of clinical applications. Tags: clinical nuclear medicine, radioisotopes. Wagner HN Jr. Am J Med Sci. 1964 May;247:601-32. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez/14158495
1966
PERFORATED TAPE RECORDER FOR DIGITAL SCAN DATA STORE WITH GREY SHADE AND NUMERIC READOUT. This article discusses a new system of recording scan information on a strip of perforated paper tape, which can be converted on rapid playback to a recognizable form. Tags: perforated tape, digital recording, data storage. Kuhl DE, Edwards RQ. J Nucl Med. 1966 APR;7(4):269-80. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez/5930231
TRANSMISSION SCANNING: A USEFUL ADJUNCT TO CONVENTIONAL EMISSION SCANNING FOR ACCURATELY KEYING ISOTOPE DEPOSITION TO RADIOGRAPHIC ANATOMY. This article discusses the use of transmission scanning as an adjuct to emission scanning to assist in orientation of the radionuclide scan. Am-241 was emplyed for transmission scanning. Tags: Am-241, emission scanning, radionuclides. Kuhl DE, Hale J, Eaton WL. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez/5915433
1967
INT J APPL RADIAT ISOT. 1967 OCT;18(10):723-7. DATA ACQUISITION FOR COMPUTER ANALYSIS AND DISPLAY OF RADIONUCLIDE SCANS. CHAAPEL DW, SPRAU AC, TAUXE WN. A technical article discussing contour formats, graph dispays, scalloping, equipment, and flow charts. Tags: contour formats, scalloping. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez/6061669
OPTICAL ASSESSMENT OF ISOTOPE CONCENTRATION IN CONVENTIONAL SCANNING (ISOSCAN). Tags: optical assessment, isotopes. Scott WP. Radiology. 1967 Nov;89(5):896-7. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez/6048090
1968
CHARACTERISTICS OF DISPLAY SYSTEMS IN SCANNING AND A SIMPLE PHANTOM PROCEDURE TO EVALUATE OVER-ALL SCANNER PERFORMANCE. Tags: displays, phantoms, quality control. Mallard JR, Wilks RJ. J Nucl Med. 1968 Mar;9(3):96-109. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez/5636601
WAGNER HN. PRINCIPLES OF NUCLEAR MEDICINE. Saunders, Philadelphia 1968. ASIN: B0000CO5Q8
1969
DYNAMIC STUDIES WITH THE NEWER INSTRUMENTATION. Provides an overview of instrumentation in gamma scanning. Tags: dynamic imaging. POLCYN RE, GOTTSCHALK A. RADIOL CLIN NORTH AM. 1969 AUG;7(2):243-55. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez/4898084
USES OF DESK COMPUTERS IN NUCLEAR MEDICINE. Prior to the 1970's, the practice of nuclear medicine involved the manual calculation of exponential functions using graph paper. The standard method to calculate decay constants, radionuclide T-1/2 decay times, radionuclide activity at time zero, and biological functions such as red blood cell survival involved plotting observed data points on semilogarithmic graph paper. The observed data points were plotted, and then manually fitted using a ruler to what appeared to be the best straight line. For example, this technique was used to determine the activity of a radionuclide at different times. First, the dose was measured at several different times. The data points were then plotted on the semilogarithmic graph paper. A best fit line was visually estimated and drawn using a ruler. Following this plotted line backwards was used to estimated activity at time zero. Following the line forward was used to estimate activity in the future. While using a visually estimated best fit line of data plotted on semilogarithmic paper was quick and relatively accurate, different individuals could draw significantly different best fit lines. The lines were subjectively drawn and based entirely upon visual estimation. Colombetti LG, Horner RW, Kellner JJ. AM J ROENTGENOL RADIUM THER NUCL MED. 1969 AUG;106(4):874-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez/5806018
A NEW IMAGE DISPLAY AND ANALYSIS SYSTEM (IDA) FOR RADIONUCLIDE IMAGING. Tags: image display analysis, radionuclide imaging. NATARAJAN TK AND WAGNER HN. RADIOLOGY 93(4):823-7 1969 OCT. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez/5824234
CONSTRUCION OF A FUNCTIONAL IMAGE FROM SPATIALLY LOCALIZED RATE CONSTANTS OBTAINED FROM SERIAL CAMERA AND RECTILINEAR SCANNER DATA. Tags: rectilinear, nuclear medicine. KAIHARA S, NATARAJAN TK, MAYNARD CD, AND WAGNER HN. RADIOLOGY 93(6):1345-8 1969 DEC. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez/5363390
[edit] 1970's
1970
COMPUTER ASSISTANCE IN THE INTERPRETATION AND QUANTIFICATION OF LUNG SCANS. Tags: pulmonary nuclear medicine, lung scanning, computers. STRAUSS HW, NATARAJAN TK, SZIKLAS JJ, POULOSE KP, FUKUSHIMA T, AND WAGNER HN. RADIOLOGY 97(2):277-81 1970 NOV. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez/4921223
ADVANTAGES OF 99MTC PERTECHNETATE FOR THYROID SCANNING IN PATIENTS WITH DECREASED RADIOIODINE UPTAKE. Tags: pertechnetate, thyroid scanning, thyroiditis. STRAUSS HW, HURLEY PJ, WAGNER HN JR. RADIOLOGY. 1970 NOV;97(2):307-10. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez/5481135
1971
A SCINTIPHOTOGRAPHIC METHOD FOR MEASURING LEFT VENTRICULAR EJECTION FRACTION IN MAN WITHOUT CARDIAC CATHETERIZATION. A radioactive tracer method for the measurement of left ventricular ejection fraction in man without cardiac catheterization is described. The tracer (99mtechnetium-labeled albumin) is injected intravenously. Images of the heart at end-systole and end-diastole are obtained using a scintillation camera and an electronic gate triggered by the patient's electrocardiogram. Each image is composed of 300,000 counts, representing a summation of 200 to 400 heartbeats at end-systole and end- diastole. An outline of the left ventricular free wall is drawn from each gated image. The position of the aortic and mitral valve planes is determined using a radionuclide angiogram obtained at the time of tracer injection. Left ventricular ejection fraction is calculated from the area and length of the long axis of the ventricular outline at end-systole and end-diastole. Determinations of ejection fraction in 20 patients using this tracer method were correlated with measurements obtained by contrast cineangiography with the following results: ejection fraction r = +0.92, P < 0.001; end- diastolic volume r = -0.76, P < 0.001; and end-systolic volume r = -0.75, P < 0.001. Tags: nuclear cardiology, MUGA, scintigraphy. STRAUSS HW, ZARET BL, HURLEY PJ, NATARAJAN TK, AND PITT B. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF CARDIOLOGY 28(5):575-80 1971 NOV. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez/5116974
A NONINVASIVE SCINTIPHOTOGRAPHIC METHOD FOR DETECTING REGIONAL VENTRICULAR DYSFUNCTION IN MAN. Tags: nuclear cardiology, ventricular function, scintigraphy. ZARET BL, STRAUSS HW, HURLEY PJ, NATARAJAN TK, PITT B. N ENGL J MED. 1971 MAY 27;284(21):1165-70. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez/5572479
COMPUTERS IN RADIOLOGY AT MASSACHUSETTS GENERAL HOSPITAL. This article provides a broad overview of computers in the management of a department of radiology at Harvard. Tags: radiology, personal computers, medical imaging. PENDERGRASS HP, BAUMAN RA. RADIOL CLIN NORTH AM. 1971 APR;9(1):141-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez/4929404
MEDICAL RESEARCH ENGINEERING-- PAST AND FUTURE. This discusses enginering primarily but also discusses the potential for computer applications in medicine. Tags: engineering, medical imaging. BERKLEY C. MED RES ENG. 1971 DEC;10(6):2-5. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez/4948526
1972
FAILURE TO IMPROVE OBSERVER PERFORMANCE WITH SCAN SMOOTHING. Tags: nuclear medicine, interpretation, diagnostic studies. KUHL DE, SANDERS TD, EDWARDS RQ, MAKLER PT JR. J NUCL MED. 1972 OCT;13(10):752-7. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez/5056691
A COMPUTERIZED SYSTEM FOR RAPID EVALUATION OF THYROID FUNCTION. Tags: thyroid function, nuclear medicine. HURLEY PJ, MAISEY MN, NATARAJAN TK, WAGNER HN JR. CLIN ENDOCRINOL METAB. 1972 FEB;34(2):354-60. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez/4110446
1973
QUANTITATIVE SECTION SCANNING USING ORTHOGONAL TANGENT CORRECTION. Tags: mathematical models, nuclear medicine. KUHL DE, EDWARDS RQ, RICCI AR, REIVICH M. J NUCL MED. 1973 APR;14(4):196-200. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez/4691409
THE ROLE OF COMPUTERS IN THE NUCLEAR MEDICINE LABORATORIES. In the early 1970's, the demand for computers in nuclear medicine started with the use of gamma cameras for dynamic studies, and the use of automatic sample-counting equipment for immunoassay procedures. Because of the wide range of applications of nuclear medicine and the variation across individual departments was broad, a standardized computer setup was not thought to be practicle. There were several possible approaches to this problem, including: a) the use of small special-purpose computers on each individual apparatus, b) have each devise provide computer-compatible output for off- line programming performed by a central system, or c) attempt to run all the devices on-line to a central computer operating system (1). The fields of application of computers in nuclear medicine at the time included functional studies, clinical records, whole-body counting, collimator design, image processing, quantitative scanning, radionuclide dosimetry, and radioimmunoassay among many other areas. Tags: computers, gamma cameras, dynamic imaging. GLASS HI. SEMIN NUCL MED. 1973 OCT;3(4):303-10. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez/4201571
1975
A NONDEDICATED MINI COMPUTER SYSTEM FOR COMPREHENSIVE GAMMA CAMERA IMAGE PROCESSING AND ANALYSIS. Discusses a tape-oriented PDP-12 computer adapted for data collection and analysis of gamma camera radioisotope scans. Operating system utilized was GAMMA. Utilized for uniformity correction, isometric displays, isocontour plotting, shades of gray displays, data smoothing, and inertial moment analysis. Tags: gamma camera, radioisotopes, computers. GRANT ME, MOSS LJ, HANSON JS, TAYLOR CF, BECKER R, CLEMENTS JP. COMPUT BIOMED RES. 1975 JUN;8(3):201-21. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez/1157465
LOCAL CEREBRAL BLOOD VOLUME DETERMINED BY THREE-DIMENSIONAL RECONSTRUCTION OF RADIONUCLIDE SCAN DATA. We developed a method to determine in man absolute values of local cerebral blood volume (LCBV) localized throughout the brain in three dimensions and presented in a cross-sectional picture format. Previously, absolute values of LCBV have been determined in vivo by stimulated X-ray fluorescence, but these determinations have been limited to one point in the brain at a time. All other previous estimates of LCBV by external emission counting have been contaminated by the significant contribution of blood in the overlying scalp and cranium. In our method, a transverse section scan is made after the injection of -99m-Tc-labeled red blood cells into a peripheral vein. Data processing then gives a point-to-point estimate of absolute radionuclide concentration analogous to an autoradiograph. After the concentration of blood activity is determined, counting data are converted to a two-dimensional map of LCBV representing a cross section at a known level of the brain. In a series of five baboons, the following equation was obtained for the regression plane that relates LCBV in the center of the brain to arterial carbon dioxide tension (P-ALPHA-CO2) and mean arterial blood pressure (MABP): LCBV equals 2.88 + 0.049P-ALPHA-CO2 MINUS 0.013MABP. In patients, LCBE values ranged from 2 to 4 ml/100 g depending on location; higher values corresponded to regions of cerebral cortex. Differences in blood volumes of focal brain lesions were also quantified. Tags: brain imaging, radionuclides, three-dimensional. KUHL DE, REIVICH M, ALAVI A, NYARY I, STAUM MM. CIRC RES. 1975 MAY;36(5):610-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez/1122571
1976
THE MARK IV SYSTEM FOR RADIONUCLIDE COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHY OF THE BRAIN. We developed a method to determine in man absolute values of local cerebral blood volume (LCBV) localized throughout the brain in three dimensions and presented in a cross-sectional picture format. Previously, absolute values of LCBV have been determined in vivo by stimulated X-ray fluorescence, but these determinations have been limited to one point in the brain at a time. All other previous estimates of LCBV by external emission counting have been contaminated by the significant contribution of blood in the overlying scalp and cranium. In our method, a transverse section scan is made after the injection of -99m-Tc-labeled red blood cells into a peripheral vein. Data processing then gives a point-to-point estimate of absolute radionuclide concentration analogous to an autoradiograph. After the concentration of blood activity is determined, counting data are converted to a two-dimensional map of LCBV representing a cross section at a known level of the brain. In a series of five baboons, the following equation was obtained for the regression plane that relates LCBV in the center of the brain to arterial carbon dioxide tension (P-ALPHA-CO2) and mean arterial blood pressure (MABP): LCBV equals 2.88 + 0.049P-ALPHA-CO2 MINUS 0.013MABP. In patients, LCBE values ranged from 2 to 4 ml/100 g depending on location; higher values corresponded to regions of cerebral cortex. Differences in blood volumes of focal brain lesions were also quantified. Tags: brain imaging, nuclear scintigraphy. KUHL DE, EDWARDS RQ, RICCI AR, YACOB RJ, MICH TJ, ALAVI A. RADIOLOGY. 1976 NOV;121(2):405-13. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez/981619
1977
COMPUTERS IN USE IN NUCLEAR MEDICINE: A RADIOGRAPHER'S POINT OF VIEW. This discusses computer applications in nuclear medicine in general terms, intended for the education of radiographers. Tags: nuclear technicians, nuclear medicine. GIBBS T. RADIOGRAPHY. 1977 DEC;43(516):277-80. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez/594356
INSTRUMENTATION TRENDS IN NUCLEAR MEDICINE. Nuclear medicine instrumentation requires use of various configurations of photon detectors for the purpose of in vivo and in vitro measurements of flow and metabolism. Computed tomography has solved a previous limitation of an ambiguous volume of interest intrinsic to projection images. Selection of instruments
involves first, a definition of the medical problem to be solved; then an evaluation of the following characteristics of the candidate instruments: sensitivity, spatial resolution, saturation performance, dead time, uniformity of
resolution, uniformity of sensitivity, data processing capabilities, and cost. New developments include dynamic imaging in transverse section with either single photon or positron annihilation photons, and whole-body quantitative imaging of
sequential changes in radiopharmaceutical concentration. Tags: imaging, nuclear medicine, quality control, dynamic imaging. Budinger TF. Semin Nucl Med. 1977 Oct;7(4):285-97. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez/411173
1978
COMPUTERS IN NUCLEAR MEDICINE: INTRODUCTORY CONCEPTS. Computers play an important role in image and data processing in nuclear medicine. Applications extend from relatively simple mathematical processing of in vitro specimen assays to more sophisticated image reconstruction procedures for emission tomography. The basic concepts and terminology associated with computer applications in image and data processing in nuclear medicine are presented here. Tags: computers, nuclear medicine, data processing. WEBER DA. SEMIN NUCL MED. 1978 APR;8(2):107-12. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez/684438
ECAT: A NEW COMPUTERIZED TOMOGRAPHIC IMAGING SYSTEM FOR POSITRON- EMITTING RADIOPHARMACEUTICALS. The ECAT was designed and developed as a positron imaging system capable of providing high contrast, high resolution, quantitative images in two-dimensional (2-D) and tomographic formats. The flexibility in its variety of imaging problems. High (HR), medium (MR), and low (LR) tomographic resolutions are 0.95 +/- 0.1, 1.3 +/- 0.1, and 1.7 +/- 0.1 cm FWHM; high, medium, and low resolutions in 2-D images are 0.85 +/- 0.1, 1.3 +/- 0.1 and 1.7 +/- 0.1, depending on resolution mode employed. ECT system efficiency is 30,100, 15,900, and 9,200 c/sec/muCi/cc with a 20-cm diameter phantom at LR, MR, and HR. Because of the geometric, detector, electronic and shielding design of the system, count-rate capability and linearity are high, with minimum detection of scattered radiation and random coincidence. Measured error agrees well with theoretical statistical predictions down to a level of 1.4% standard deviation. The redundant sampling scheme of this system significantly reduces errors caused by motion and detector instability. Scan times are variable from 10 sec to several min/slice and multiple levels are automatically performed by computer control of patient bed. A variety of human studies illustrate image quality, resolution, and efficiency of both ECT and 2-D imaging mode. Examples of the noninvasive study method have been made possible through development of ECT. PHELPS ME, HOFFMAN EJ, HUANG SC, KUHL DE. J NUCL MED. 1978 JUN;19(6):635-47. Tags: Bone Neoplasms/radionuclide imaging, Carbon Radioisotopes/diagnostic use, Cerebrovascular Circulation, Fluorine/diagnostic use, Gallium Radioisotopes/diagnostic use, Hodgkin Disease/radionuclide imaging, Humans, Intracranial Embolism and Thrombosis/radionuclide imaging, Middle Aged, Nitrogen Radioisotopes/diagnostic use, Radioisotopes/diagnostic use, Radionuclide Imaging/*instrumentation, Tomography/*instrumentation. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez/660276
COMPUTERS AND QUALITY CONTROL IN NUCLEAR MEDICINE. The general topic of computers and nuclear medicine quality control may be approached from two main areas; controlling the quality of computerized studies, and computer applications in general nuclear medicine quality control. Overlap occurs when quality control of computer studies is performed by the computer itself. The uses of computers in record-keeping and in quality control of imaging instrumentation and in vitro studies, including radioimmunoassay, are discussed in this review. Aspects of quality control for computerized clinical cardiovascular, cerebral, and renal studies and emission computed tomography are reviewed, including consideration of difficulties and inaccuracies involved in the studies. Any automatic computer analysis program should incorporate adequate checks and error detection protocols and should illustrate results for verification. Current routine quality control procedures using the computer unfortunately are few. Quality control criteria are needed for camera/computer systems in high count rate clinical applications, and increasing emphasis should be aimed at quality control of those computerized dynamic and function studies in current clinical use. The computer has a valuable potential for nuclear medicine quality control. In vitro and computerized in vivo studies can be analyzed by readily available statistical programs, and variances can be monitored continuously. Computers can calibrate and monitor instrument performance regularly, and can handle managerial and clerical duties such as bookkeeping. Tags: computers, nuclear medicine, quality control. BROOKEMAN VA. SEMIN NUCL MED. 1978 APR;8(2):113-24. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez/684439
1979
A HISTORY OF COMPUTERS IN NUCLEAR MEDICINE. Discusses applications of computers in the 1960's. Experiments on atomic and nuclear structure during the first four decades of this century led quite naturally to the subsequent development of two novel areas of endeavor: nuclear medicine and digital computation. Both grew rapidly after World War I1, making their eventual overlap inevitable. It was, however, the development of a truly dynamic imaging device by Anger and the production of small and relatively inexpensive computers that eventually achieved the present, close clinical relationship between these two fields. Gregg and his associates 2 pointed out in 1965 that "the computer allows total information storage in the diagnostic evaluation of the patient." Tags: history, computers, nuclear medicine. LOKEN MK, WILLIAMS LE. SEMINARS IN NUCLEAR MEDICINE 1979;9(3):197. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez/388630
A GENERAL PURPOSE COMPUTERIZED DISPLAY AND ANALYSIS SYSTEM FOR IMAGE PROCESSING IN NUCLEAR MEDICINE. In this work a general purpose image processor is described, which takes into account the special features and the various requirements for analysing images in nuclear medicine. A new approach for system structure involving encoding and representing medical images is given. This encoder, which is part of the image processor, is efficient especially for long-term storage and for certain pattern recognition in medical imaging. In this processor a statistical package is incorporated for collecting medical statistics using the acquired patient data. This information is used together with the encoder for an automated diagnostic system. Tags: image processing, image analysis, encoding, statistics, personal computer. RAM G. COMPUT PROGRAMS BIOMED. 1979 DEC;10(3):245-60. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/393452
COMPUTERS IN NUCLEAR IMAGING. Currently, the practice of nuclear medicine in larger institutions is practically
dependent upon the availability of a computer system. Gamma cameras are connected online to mini-computer systems which have the ability to collect image data in a number of different formats. This permits sophisticated analysis techniques to be used so that quantitative data may be extracted from the images. In some instances, as in tomography, data are reconstructed into images to give views of organs that would otherwise be impossible to obtain. Tags: computers, gamma cameras, mini-computer, tomography. Cradduck TD. Med Instrum. 1979 May-Jun;13(3):156-60. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/440175
[edit] 1980's
1980
THE CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION OF MODERN GAMMA CAMERA SYSTEMS: A TEACHING ARTICLE. This article discusses the physics of gamma camera imaging, including collimators, photomultiplier tubes, crystals, and computer integration. Tags: engineering, nuclear medicine, gamma camera. MANNING DJ. RADIOGRAPHY. 1980 OCT;46(550):221-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez/7005929
A PERSPECTIVE ON THE USEFULNESS OF COMPUTERS IN NUCLEAR MEDICINE. A computer system in clinical nuclear medicine has a wide variety of operations which it can perform. These range from simple data acquisition and tabulation to elaborate temporal and spatial reconstructions. Simultaneous recording of physiological data has also expanded the number of nuclear medical studies possible. The multiple-gated cardiac equilibrium analysis is the primary example of this format which has evolved rapidly with the availability of inexpensive central memory. Decreasing size and cost of processor units recently have led to the development of multiple processor systems. In some cases, the peripheral devices have a microprocessor already built in. The total cost of the computer system is essentially dictated by the number of peripheral devices. Tags: nuclear medicine, spatial reconstruction. WILLIAMS LE, LOKEN MK. RIC CLIN LAB. 1980 APR-JUN;10(2):433-43. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez/7455532
NUCLEAR MEDICINE AND COMPUTERS IN THE 1980'S. Reviews advances in computers in nuclear medicine in the 1970's and predicts advances in the 1980's. GILDAY DL. APPLIED RADIOLOGY 1981;10(1):104,117. Tags: computers, reviews, nuclear medicine. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10255042
1981
BIOMEDICAL IMAGE PROCESSING. Biomedical image processing is a very broad field; it covers biomedical signal gathering, image forming, picture processing, and image display to medical diagnosis based on features extracted from images. This article reviews this topic in both its fundamentals and applications. In its fundamentals, some basic image processing techniques including outlining, deblurring, noise cleaning, filtering, search, classical analysis and texture analysis have been reviewed together with examples. The state-of-the-art image processing systems have been introduced and discussed in two categories: general purpose image processing systems and image analyzers. In order for these systems to be effective for biomedical applications, special biomedical image processing languages have to be developed. The combination of both hardware and software leads to clinical imaging devices. Two different types of clinical imaging devices have been discussed. There are radiological imagings which include radiography, thermography, ultrasound, nuclear medicine and CT. Among these, thermography is the most noninvasive but is limited in application due to the low energy of its source. X-ray CT is excellent for static anatomical images and is moving toward the measurement of dynamic function, whereas nuclear imaging is moving toward organ metabolism and ultrasound is toward tissue physical characteristics. Heart imaging is one of the most interesting and challenging research topics in biomedical image processing; current methods including the invasive-technique cineangiography, and noninvasive ultrasound, nuclear medicine, transmission, and emission CT methodologies have been reviewed. Two current federally funded research projects in heart imaging, the dynamic spatial reconstructor and the dynamic cardiac three-dimensional densitometer, should bring some fruitful results in the near future. Miscrosopic imaging technique is very different from the radiological imaging technique in the sense that interaction between the operator and the imaging device is very essential. The white blood cell analyzer has been developed to the point that it becomes a daily clinical imaging device. An interactive chromosome karyotyper is being clinical evaluated and its preliminary indication is very encouraging. Tremendous efforts have been devoted to automation of cancer cytology; it is hoped that some prototypes will be available for clinical trials very soon. Automation of histology is still in its infancy; much work still needs to be done in this area. The 1970s have been very fruitful in utilizing the imaging technique in biomedical application; the computerized tomographic scanner and the white blood cell analyzer being the most successful imaging devices. Tags: image processing, image analyzers, software. HUANG HK. CRIT REV BIOENG. 1981;5(3):185-271. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7023828
1982
POSITRON COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHY. An early discussion of the use of positron emission tomography. Tags: PET, positron emission tomography. Phelps ME, Mazziotta JC, Kuhl DE. JAMA. 1982 Feb 12;247(6):850-1. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez/6977042
NO NONSENSE USE OF COMPUTERS IN NUCLEAR MEDICINE. This paper discusses the use of computers in gated, static, dynamic, and tomographic studies. Cine mode playback utilized for improved interpretation of clinical studies. Tags: cine, dynamic, tomography. CROFT BY. APPLIED RADIOL. 1982;11(3):107. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10255424
1984
DIGITAL COMPUTERS IN NUCLEAR MEDICINE. AN OVERVIEW. Just a few years ago the role of digital processing and display in nuclear medicine was in question. With the emergence of applications that make the value of digital processing more evident plus the favorable trends in digital equipment price and performance, the controversy has died away. The use of computers to acquire, process, and display radionuclide measurements is now routine in many hospitals and research laboratories. Tags: computers, digital, nuclear medicine. ALPERT NM, CORREIA JA. APPL RADIOL. 1984 NOV-DEC;13(6):31-3, 36-7. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez/10268875
1985
PERSONAL COMPUTERS IN NUCLEAR MEDICINE. Applications of personal computers in a nuclear medicine practice range from word processing and data base management to storage of patient and drug data to data analysis and computer-assisted diagnosis. The author offers examples of such applications from his experience at The Johns Hopkins Medical Institutions and makes suggestions for those contemplating the purchase of a computer. Tags: personal computers, word processing, database management. LINKS JM. APPL RADIOL. 1985 MAR-APR;14(2):90-2. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10299981
[edit] 1990's
1990
RADIOGR TODAY. 1990 NOV;56(642):33. COMPUTERS AND NUCLEAR MEDICINE. HINTON P. Discusses the broad integration of computers into a nuclear medicine department and radiology department. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez/2252538
1994
SEMIN NUCL MED. 1994 JAN;24(1):75-80. THE USE OF PERSONAL COMPUTERS IN NUCLEAR MEDICINE. TELLO R, POTTER JE, HILL TC. Consolidating personal computers (PCs) with nuclear medicine technology can create high computational power comparable with that produced by vendor-specific computer equipment, and at more affordable prices. The integration of a standard platform and operating system with a large installed base has enabled our department to maintain itself at the cutting edge of technology with minimal expense. Along with the savings from the purchase of PC software and hardware come the added advantage of rapid training of staff with minimal in-house effort, especially given the vast educational support in the general community. The integration of a standard platform and operating system with a large installed base has provided the nuclear medicine department with computational resources once unheard of because of economies of scale. The acceptance and integration of a pervasive, flexible technology into nuclear medicine have shown that state-of-the-art studies can be performed at low cost. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez/8122130
1995
WAGNER HN, SZABO Z, BUCHANAN J. PRINCIPLES OF NUCLEAR MEDICINE (2ND ED). Saunders, Philadelphia 1995. ISBN: 0721690912
[edit] 2000's
2006
WAGNER HN. A PERSONAL HISTORY OF NUCLEAR MEDICINE. Springer, London 2006. ISBN 1852339721.
